The Evolution and Theory of Color

Color theory is the study of how colors work, how they’re created, how they relate to each other, and how they affect the way we think and feel. From ancient philosophers to modern designers, humans have been analyzing and organizing color for thousands of years. This guide covers the foundations: the color wheel, primary and secondary colors, color relationships, and the qualities that make every hue unique.

The Primate Legacy

We have our primate ancestors to thank for color vision. Approximately 30-40 million years ago (during the Oligocene epoch), Old World primates developed trichromatic vision—the ability to see three primary color channels (red, green, and blue)—rather than the dichromatic vision (typically blue and green) found in most mammals.

It is hypothesized that seeing more colors enhances social bonding (allowing primates to read emotional cues in facial skin tone changes) and foraging efficiency, particularly in identifying ripe fruits against green foliage.

This ability gave our ancestors a significant evolutionary advantage, and they soon outcompeted other species for valuable resources. Current studies support this theory. In one study, researchers observed that rhesus monkeys with trichromatic vision gathered fruit faster than those with dichromatic vision, demonstrating a clear survival benefit. For those interested, rhesus monkeys are unique because monkeys in a group are either dichromatic or trichromatic depending on genotype.

Color in Human Culture and History

The origins of color perception run deep in our evolutionary history. It is reasonable to assume that early humans studied color and attached emotional meaning to different shades. If we examine the beginning of written records, we can see the importance of color in early civilizations.

Formal color theory work dates back to:

• Aristotle’s treatise “On Colors” (circa 350 BCE).
• The ancient Indian text “Natya Shastra” by Bharata Muni (circa 200 BCE-200 CE) explored color in theatrical performance and emotion.
• Isaac Newton’s groundbreaking “Opticks” (1704) demonstrated that white light contains all colors of the spectrum.

But we don’t even have to look that far back. In our own lives, we can feel that certain colors are associated with certain things, and those connections form deep impressions and motivations within the human psyche: the yellow of the sun represents warmth and energy, the black of night evokes mystery or death, red recalls blood and passion, and blue symbolizes sky and water, suggesting either calm or melancholy.

These aren’t just colors; they are themes of thoughts and emotions, and artists use this language to create their work. Color is motion, thought, identity, and statement, perhaps even deeply rooted in evolution.

The Color Wheel

The color wheel is a circle that organizes colors according to their relationship. The modern 12-color wheel was developed by Isaac Newton in 1666 when he bent the visible spectrum into a circle, though earlier versions existed in various forms.

The concept was refined by Johannes Itten at the Bauhaus school in the 1920s, creating the version most commonly used today. The wheel arranges colors in sequence, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and violet, making it easier to understand color relationships and create harmonious color schemes. Today we have a strictly defined and numbered color system for naming and cataloging every hue.

Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Colors

Additionally, early scientists, artists, and philosophers were interested in breaking down colors into what they called primary colors and examining how they could mix to create other hues.

Primary Colors

The traditional RYB (Red, Yellow, Blue) color model, used primarily in art and painting, asserts that these three primary colors can theoretically be mixed to create all other colors. The theory suggests that if you cannot achieve a particular color, it is because the pigments being used are impure, and that primary colors cannot themselves be created from other colors because they are distinct and fundamental.

Note: Modern color science recognizes different primary sets depending on the medium: RGB (Red, Green, Blue) for light/screens, and CMY (Cyan, Magenta, Yellow) for printing. As with everything in color theory, this remains under debate, and I may explore it further in a future blog post.

Secondary Colors

These are created by mixing two primary colors. In the traditional RYB model:

• Red + Yellow = Orange
• Blue + Yellow = Green
• Blue + Red = Purple (Violet)

Tertiary Colors

These are made by mixing a primary color with an adjacent secondary color. These colors move the main color toward another color, creating six additional positions on the standard color wheel:

• Red-Orange, Yellow-Orange, Yellow-Green, Blue-Green, Blue-Violet, Red-Violet.

Color Relationships

How colors interact is just as important as the colors themselves.

• Complementary Colors: Colors that sit opposite each other on the color wheel. When mixed together in pigment, they cancel each other out, creating neutral browns or grays. When placed next to each other, they create the strongest visual contrast and make each other appear more vibrant.
  • Traditional pairs: Red/Green, Blue/Orange, Yellow/Purple.
  • Modern pairs: Red/Cyan, Green/Magenta, Blue/Yellow.
• Analogous Colors: Colors that sit next to each other on the color wheel (such as blue, blue-green, and green), creating harmonious, calming color schemes.
• Monochromatic Schemes: Variations of a single hue using different values (lightness/darkness) and saturation levels.
• Triadic Colors: Three colors evenly spaced apart on the color wheel (forming a triangle), such as red, yellow, and blue. These create vibrant, balanced schemes.

Color Qualities: Hue, Saturation, and Value

When we analyze the quality of color, we typically consider three dimensions:

1. Hue: The name of the color itself; what distinguishes red from blue, or yellow from green. It’s the color’s position on the color wheel.
2. Saturation (also called chroma or intensity): How pure or vivid the color appears—how much gray is mixed in. A highly saturated color is bright and intense, while a desaturated color appears muted or grayish.
3. Value: How light or dark the color appears, ranging from white to black.
   • Tint: Adding white.
   • Shade: Adding black.
   • Tone: Adding gray.